At this point, Avian flu H5N1 is thought to have very limited ability to transmit between humans, but a recent case in British Columbia with an unknown source of transmission has piqued the curiosity and concern of scientists, including 91亚色 Professor Seyed Moghadas.

Did this lone case come about through transmission from an animal or another person, and if it was via human transmission, what methods will control its spread in the human population? Director of 91亚色鈥檚 Agent-Based Modelling Laboratory in the Centre of Excellence in AI for Public Health Advancement, Moghadas and a group of researchers used modelling to understand the best spread control measures should human-to-human transmission become possible.

鈥淭he idea was, let's evaluate some of the interventions that we usually implement at the very earliest stage of a disease outbreak or emerging disease, which we know very little about,鈥� he says.

For the research, ",鈥� published today in Nature Health, various scenarios from isolation to vaccination before or after a spillover event were modelled. It is one of only a few studies that have explicitly modelled outbreak dynamics following spillover into humans or the effectiveness of public health interventions in early and highly uncertain phases of virus development.

As a professor of computational epidemiology and vaccine science in 91亚色鈥檚 Faculty of Science, Moghadas and his colleagues were already collecting data on H5N1 cases in the United States when the Canadian case arose. Given the unknown nature of transmission, the team decided to pivot their work to look at what was happening in B.C.

鈥淭he case in B.C. was of particular interest for us because no definitive source of exposure was identified, including no direct contact with infected animals or known high-risk settings such as poultry farms,鈥� says Moghadas. 鈥淏ecause of that, it came to our attention that maybe there is some sort of transmission going on between humans.鈥�

As far as health and science experts know, H5N1 can only be transmitted among poultry and dairy cattle on farms, as well as through wild birds, and from these animals to humans, but sustained human-to-human transmission has not been established. The person from B.C., however, had no clearly identified exposure and even though human infection from animals is rare, avian influenza H5N1 is considered highly pathogenic and a potentially serious and evolving threat to global public health.

鈥淭his virus was first identified in 1997 in Southeast Asia. This kind of zoonotic virus essentially jumps from the bird or animal side to human side sometimes, mostly it circulates among wild birds,鈥� says Moghadas. 鈥淭here is no confirmation that human-to-human transmission happens as yet in North America.鈥�

The virus has only been in North America since 2022, but surveillance monitoring for it began in 2003 and up until recently there have been close to 1,000 cases reported globally in humans and just under 500 deaths, although the number of cases could be higher because not all cases are likely reported or symptomatic. The virus has not only expanded its geographical range, but also the animal species it can infect.

鈥淓volution of influenza viruses of any type is always a challenge for humans. The flu virus is one of the very rapid mutating pathogens,鈥� he says. The concern is it will mutate to be able to transmit between humans. How viable is it? How easily can it spillover from animals to humans, and how long could the potential chain of transmission from human-to-human become? These are still open questions.

鈥淨uantifying that risk was important for us because that could also give us direction in terms of how bad the disease could be and what strategies will work to contain it,鈥� says Moghadas. 鈥淲e have very few measures in place or a strategy to deal with it at this point, given that the transmission between humans is not established.鈥�

As it is an avian flu virus, it will likely require two doses of a similar vaccine to what was used during the H1N1 pandemic to reduce the risk and severity which often triggers a higher viral load.

The researchers used Abbottsford, B.C. as the location as it is a highly dense poultry farming area. The starting point is after a spillover has happened. 鈥淚f a human became infected, how do we block this single individual to trigger a large outbreak? Or if the infection is going on between humans, can we block these chains and to what degree we can block them?鈥� asks Moghadas. 鈥淲hat is the effectiveness of either self-isolation of symptomatic cases or vaccination of farmers or vaccination of farmers and their household members?鈥�

Even with mitigation measures, someone in the farmer鈥檚 family could potentially be infected by the farmer and then transmit it to someone in the community.

The team evaluated two different types of vaccination strategies. One was reactive, which means that you trigger a vaccination program after a case has been identified somewhere. The second strategy was pre-emptive 鈥� individuals, such as farmers, are vaccinated before any case is identified.

What they found is that reactive vaccination has very limited additional benefits outside of self-isolation, but pre-emptive vaccination adds substantial additional benefits on top of self-isolation.

Should the virus be confirmed to be capable of human-to-human transmission, Moghadas says they want to limit the chain of transmission and minimize the risk of evolution of the virus to become more adapted to human conditions. For now, he says, when cases are identified, the person should self isolate immediately. For the authorized vaccine, it should be meted out quickly to target populations, but that could take several weeks to have population level effectiveness.

鈥淭imely action is a critical part of controlling the spread. Self-isolation of symptomatic cases has a significant effect, but that comes with the caveat that we don't know if everybody who is infected will develop symptoms,鈥� says Moghadas. 鈥淭here could be potential asymptomatic cases we don't identify and by the time we do identify them, they've been already infecting others in the chain of transmission. This case in B.C. was particularly concerning because they could not find the source of infection.鈥�

The concern is not only that the virus might be able to jump from animals to humans, but also the potential for it to mutate during early human transmission chains making it more adaptable to infecting humans. This underscores the risk of local outbreaks with global implications, he says.

鈥淢y research is all about evidence generation for governments, health-care providers and policymakers in public health organizations. We are generating evidence that can be used to at the very least limit the potential for this virus to become another pandemic,鈥� says Moghadas.

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Researchers say findings point to the need to recruit beyond universities when doing cross-cultural investigations聽

TORONTO, March. 26, 2026 鈥� A new study in Nature Communications聽finds that world-wide, people with higher levels of education are more culturally similar to those in Canada, the U.S. U.K. and other Anglo, industrialized countries and countries in Western Europe.

Lead author and 91亚色 Faculty of Health Assistant Professor says the study shows that solely recruiting from university students and educated people when doing cross-cultural comparisons will not fully capture the cultural variability we see in the world.

鈥淓ducation doesn鈥檛 just teach skills or facts, to a certain extent it also shapes how people think about the world, so the findings make sense,鈥� says White, in the Department of Psychology. 鈥淲hile Western countries continue to be over-represented in research in general, our study suggests that even where participants are recruited from non-Western countries, cultural bias may continue to persist.鈥�

Analyzing data from nearly 270,000 people across 95 countries captured in the World Values Survey, the study shows that higher education is strongly associated with cultural values typical of so-called 鈥淲EIRD鈥� societies (Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, and Democratic). For example, Russians with lower education levels were very culturally distant from American values, but Russians with a university degree were much more culturally similar to the U.S.

Contrary to modernization theories, when analyzing income and social status, the researchers did not find the same association.

White paired up with London School of Economics and New 91亚色 Professor Michael Muthukrishna for the study. They found that in 70 per cent of the countries they looked at, highly-educated people were significantly closer to the United States than people with low education in those countries. However, the researchers say the pattern reflects a broader alignment with Western cultural norms, including individualism and an emphasis on personal freedom, analytical thinking, lower conformity to social norms, and a greater generalized trust, not just American values specifically.

Muthukrishna explained, 鈥淪chooling is one of the most powerful systems of cultural transmission ever invented. Education doesn鈥檛 just change what you know, but how you think and what you value. What our results reveal is that school systems around the world still carry the fingerprints of their Western origins. That means if you鈥檙e a researcher recruiting university students in Nairobi or S茫o Paulo and comparing them to university students in New 91亚色, Toronto or London, you may be dramatically underestimating how different those cultures actually are.鈥�

White emphasizes that the findings in no way suggest that highly-educated people in non-Western countries are culturally the same as those in the West.

鈥淲e're not saying that being highly educated makes everyone the same, there's still a lot of diversity within highly educated groups around the world. It's just that the diversity has shifted in the direction of being more Western,鈥� says White, who recently also published a paper with a University of California researcher looking at . 鈥淲e are saying that you do need to look at education, in addition to things like nationality, ethnicity and religion, when considering why someone thinks the way they do.鈥�

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91亚色 is a modern, multi-campus, urban university located in Toronto, Ontario. Backed by a diverse group of students, faculty, staff, alumni and partners, we bring a uniquely global perspective to help solve societal challenges, drive positive change, and prepare our students for meaningful life and career paths. 91亚色's Glendon Campus is home to Southern Ontario's Centre of Excellence for French Language and Bilingual Postsecondary Education. 91亚色鈥檚 campus in Costa Rica offers students exceptional transnational learning opportunities and innovative programs. Together, we can make things right for our communities, our planet, and our future.

Media Contact: Emina Gamulin, 91亚色 Media Relations, 437-217-6362, egamulin@yorku.ca

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A new study out of 91亚色 shows autistic individuals more likely to use both hands

TORONTO, Jan. 19, 2026 鈥� Most people take for granted which hand they use to reach for a cup of coffee or a puzzle piece. However, a new study out of 91亚色 suggests that for autistic individuals, which hand they use for various tasks is highly variable, which points to profound differences in the brain.

The research, published today in the journal Autism Research, found that even autistic adults who are right-handed demonstrate a reduced specialization of hand use and more distinctive movement patterns when compared to non-autistic peers.

鈥淗andedness is one of the most visible markers of how our brain's left and right hemispheres specialize for different tasks,鈥� says 91亚色 Associate Professor , who conducted the study with lead author and Master鈥檚 student Emily Fewster. 鈥淚n the neurotypical population, about 90 per cent of people show a strong right-hand dominance, reflecting the left hemisphere鈥檚 specialization for fine motor skills. Our study shows that in autism, this specialization is less pronounced, leading to a unique and highly individualized motor signature.鈥�

The LEGO Building Task

To observe these behaviours in a real-world context, researchers asked 54 right-handed adults, half with an autism diagnosis, to recreate complex LEGO models. Unlike traditional questionnaires that ask which hand someone uses to write, this naturalistic task allowed researchers to track thousands of dynamic movements in 3D space.

By analyzing how people actually move during the LEGO building task, researchers found that the right-handedness of autistic participants鈥� function quite differently than that of the non-autistic participants. Despite both groups identifying as right-handed, the autistic participants used their right hand much less often for grasping and did not show the typical dominant preference for using their right hand when reaching across their body.

The autistic participants also tended to shrink their workspace by focusing on blocks placed closer to them, suggesting a more cautious or individualized strategy for managing the space around them. In addition, their movements followed highly unique, idiosyncratic paths. While non-autistic participants tended to follow a similar sequence of actions, each autistic participant moved in a distinct, more variable way.

Together, these findings suggest that the autistic brain organizes movement in a less specialized, more variable manner than previously understood.

Implications for Earlier Identification

While the study focuses on brain organization, these "motor signatures" have significant clinical potential. Because motor skills often emerge in infancy, long before the complex communication skills typically used to diagnose autism, identifying these subtle motor differences could open a window for much earlier support.

鈥淪tandard questionnaires often miss these nuances because they don鈥檛 capture the dynamic nature of real-life movement,鈥� says Freud. 鈥淏y looking at how people actually move in a natural setting, we can identify objective markers that might eventually help us provide more tailored support strategies much earlier in development.鈥�

The researchers suggest that this "noisy" or variable motor processing supports the theory that autism involves broader, less specialized neural representations across the brain.

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91亚色 placed in the top five for comprehensive universities in the 2025 Research Infosource Canada鈥檚 Top 50 Research Universities.

91亚色 also ranked number one out of 13 comprehensive universities nationally in the social sciences and humanities (SSH) publications category within the ranking鈥檚 Spotlight on University Publication Performance 2019 to 2023 section and number two for SSH publications as a percentage of total publications.

鈥淭hese rankings highlight not only the vital and expanding contributions 91亚色 researchers are making across the social sciences and humanities, but also the profound and growing impact of our work in engineering, the natural sciences and the health sciences,鈥� says Amir Asif, vice-president, research and innovation. 鈥淲ith our new School of Medicine set to open in 2028, we are poised for an exciting new era where our research across all fields will surge even further, shaping discoveries, informing solutions and driving lasting, global change.鈥�

In addition, the University placed in the top five for health sciences and cross-sector AI collaboration publications in the comprehensive tier.

For university research partnerships, 91亚色 was number one in the comprehensive tier with a 70 per cent increase in funding over the 2023 to 2024 period in the International Government Research Income Growth category.

91亚色鈥檚 research income remained stable at about $120 million, but it jumped one spot to place 21 overall in the research income category among Canadian universities.

Research Infosource Inc., a research, consulting and publishing firm, is billed as a source of research and development intelligence for all of Canada. Annually, it also ranks the nation鈥檚 research universities.

In the latest聽,聽91亚色 placed in the top five as one of the best comprehensive universities in Canada. The University has for years consistently ranked in the top five.

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New findings reveal how sensory expectations help the brain prepare for disturbances, enabling seamless movement in complex environments

A groundbreaking study led by Jonathan Michaels, a Faculty of Health professor at 91亚色鈥檚 School of Kinesiology and Health Science, reveals how the brains of humans and monkeys use sensory expectations to prepare for unexpected disturbances, enabling faster and more accurate motor responses.

, the study demonstrates that motor circuits across the brain do not passively wait for sensory signals. Instead, they proactively anticipate potential challenges, configuring themselves to respond effectively to disturbances. The research represents a significant leap forward in uncovering the brain鈥檚 predictive capabilities and its role in motor control.

This advancement provides a clearer picture of the neural mechanisms underlying movement preparation and response, illustrating how expectation itself enhances precision and stability. The discovery opens new pathways for improving rehabilitation techniques and advancing brain-computer interface technology.

鈥淲hen we move through the world, our brains don鈥檛 just plan our own actions 鈥� they also prepare for surprises,鈥� says Michaels. Imagine yourself standing at the entrance to a packed live music venue. You check your ticket and plan the most direct route to your seat. 鈥淵ou鈥檙e planning where you鈥檙e going, but things might also happen in the environment,鈥� explains Michaels. 鈥淭here are people walking everywhere. You鈥檙e constantly trying to anticipate who might bump into you.鈥�

As you step into the bustling crowd, your brain begins processing visual cues 鈥� excited concertgoers, empty cups strewn about and other obstacles in your way. Without conscious effort, your brain anticipates potential disturbances and prepares to respond. When a person walks into you, your brain quickly adjusts your muscle activity to keep you on track. This seamless ability to predict and adapt to unexpected challenges reflects the findings of Michaels鈥� recent research.

Predicting the unpredictable: inside the brain鈥檚 response system

The team of researchers from Western University conducted experiments using a Kinarm robotic exoskeleton device that applied mechanical perturbations to participants鈥� arms. By providing visual cues about the likelihood of disturbances, the researchers observed that both humans and monkeys adjusted their movements based on these probabilities. When the disturbance matched the brain鈥檚 prediction, participants鈥� muscles responded more efficiently, showcasing the brain鈥檚 ability to use sensory expectations to optimize motor control.

To uncover the neural mechanisms behind this phenomenon, the team recorded activity from thousands of neurons in monkeys performing the tasks. The data revealed that motor circuits represent sensory expectations as simple patterns of neural activity, directly reflecting the likelihood of each possible event. These findings were further validated through computer models of the arm, which developed similar predictive strategies when trained under comparable conditions.

Conducted while Michaels was a Banting Fellow in the lab of Andrew Pruszynski, a Canada Research Chair in sensorimotor neuroscience and Schulich School of Medicine & Dentistry professor, the research benefited from cutting-edge Neuropixels technology, which enabled the simultaneous recording of hundreds of neurons, providing unprecedented insights into the brain鈥檚 motor circuits. The study was strengthened by collaboration with leading experts at Western, including the other members of Western鈥檚 Sensorimotor Superlab, J枚rn Diedrichsen, Western Research Chair for motor control & computational neuroscience, and psychology professor Paul Gribble.

The implications of this research are far-reaching. By understanding how the brain uses sensory expectations to prepare for disturbances, scientists can develop innovative approaches to stroke and injury rehabilitation, helping patients regain motor function more effectively. The findings could also inform the development of brain-computer interfaces, like those currently being pioneered by Neuralink, Paradromics, Synchron and others based on decades of neuroscience research.

鈥淭his study, which took years of effort, highlights how much we still have to learn about how the brain works 鈥� and it underscores the importance of basic research in making such discoveries,鈥� says Michaels.

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Research found users more likely to combine substances in times of high stress and challenging emotions in order to achieve a greater high

TORONTO, Sept. 9, 2025 鈥� A new longitudinal study led by 91亚色鈥檚 Department of Psychology finds that young adults experiencing periods of high stress, anxiety and depressed mood more frequently combined binge drinking with cannabis use in order to get more high and drunk, and were also likely to report more adverse life consequences when combining these substances. Lead author , associate professor in 91亚色鈥檚 Faculty of Health, says that since cannabis use among young adults has increased after Canada legalized the drug, understanding why people combine the drug and outcomes when they do is important.聽

鈥淪tudies suggest that human brains are still developing into their 20s and alcohol and cannabis dependencies are more prevalent in this age group than any other,鈥�  says Wardell, also director of the at 91亚色. 鈥淲hile occasional combined use may not be a cause for concern, the study clearly shows increased risk when combining these substances. Understanding combined use can help young adults mitigate the risk, understand when they might have an issue and seek support to develop healthier coping mechanisms.鈥�

For the paper, published in the journal Alcohol: Clinical and Experimental Research and funded by the Canadian Institutes of Health Research (CIHR), Wardell and his research team recruited 151 young adults, ages 19 - 25, in Ontario who already used cannabis and alcohol. The participants were asked to complete daily surveys on their cannabis and alcohol use and any negative consequences they experienced as a result on their phones for three 21-day periods spaced 6 months apart. Participants also filled out surveys about their stress, anxiety and depression symptoms, as well as their motives for co-using alcohol and cannabis.

The results showed a clear link between mental health symptoms and motivation to combine alcohol and cannabis use.

鈥淲hen they were feeling depressed or anxious, the participants were motivated to double things up because the thought was that it would make them feel better,鈥� says Wardell. 鈥淭hey also reported that they were combining cannabis with binge drinking more frequently during these times.鈥�

Wardell says that while studies show that over the short term, using substances can give people temporary relief from feelings they are seeking to escape, they can often lead to more adverse outcomes over the long term, both in terms of mental health and negative life consequences.

Other coping mechanisms that can be more helpful include breathing exercises, meditation, physical activity, talking to a friend and seeking out help from a peer-support hotline or medical professional. Wardell says there are a number of questionnaires young adults can access online that can help them determine if their use of a substance might be problematic, with one big clue being a reliance on substances to cope with stress and unwanted feelings.

While young adults are the most likely age group to develop an alcohol or cannabis use disorder, Wardell says it is also the age where early interventions can be helpful.

鈥淲hile they are not immune to effects on the developing brain, they're also at a stage where most of the time these behaviours are just getting started, or the patterns are just getting laid. It's a good time to give people feedback, give them advice, give them the information so they can make changes before their substance use habits become too ingrained.鈥� 

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91亚色 is a modern, multi-campus, urban university located in Toronto, Ontario. Backed by a diverse group of students, faculty, staff, alumni and partners, we bring a uniquely global perspective to help solve societal challenges, drive positive change, and prepare our students for success. 91亚色's fully bilingual Glendon Campus is home to Southern Ontario's Centre of Excellence for French Language and Bilingual Postsecondary Education. 91亚色鈥檚 campuses in Costa Rica and India offer students exceptional transnational learning opportunities and innovative programs. Together, we can make things right for our communities, our planet, and our future. 

Media Contact: Emina Gamulin, 91亚色 Media Relations, 437-217-6362, egamulin@yorku.ca

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TORONTO, May 5, 2025 鈥� Getting a timely diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder is a major challenge, but new research out of 91亚色 shows that how young adults, and potentially children, grasp objects could offer a simpler way to diagnose someone on the autism spectrum.

The team, part of an international collaboration, used machine learning to analyze naturalistic hand movements 鈥� specifically, finger motions during grasping 鈥� in autistic and non-autistic individuals.

鈥淥ur models were able to classify autism with approximately 85 per cent accuracy, suggesting this approach could potentially offer simpler, scalable tools for diagnosis,鈥� says lead author, Associate Professor of 91亚色鈥檚 Department of Psychology and the Centre for Vision Research.

鈥淎utism currently affects about one in 50 Canadian children, and timely, accessible diagnosis remains a major challenge. Our findings add to the growing body of research suggesting that subtle motor patterns may provide valuable diagnostic signals 鈥� something not yet widely leveraged in clinical practice.鈥�

In addition to social and communication challenges, autism, a neurodevelopmental disorder, can include motor abnormalities which often show up in early childhood. The researchers say testing for these motor movements early could lead to faster diagnoses and intervention.

鈥淭he main behaviours markers for diagnosis are focused on those with relatively late onset and the motor markers that can be captured very early in childhood may thus lower age of diagnosis,鈥� says Professor of the University of Haifa, an expert in autism research and a key collaborator in this study.

Autistic and non-autistic young adult participants were asked to use their thumbs and index fingers, which had tracking markers attached, to grasp different blocks of varying size, lift each one and replace it in the same spot, and put their hand back in the starting position. The researchers used machine learning to analyze the participants鈥� finger movements as they made grasping motions.

Both groups of participants had normal IQ and were matched on age and intelligence. Young adults were used instead of children to rule out any differences in the findings due to delayed development.

The research found that subtle motor control differences can be captured effectively with more than 84 per cent accuracy. The study also showed there were distinct kinematic properties in the grasping movements between autistic and non-autistic participants.

Analysis of naturalistic precision grasping tasks has not typically been used in previous studies, says Freud. Machine learning, however, provides researchers with a powerful new tool to analyze motor patterns, opening new ways to use movement data in the assessment of autism spectrum disorder.

The findings, says Freud, could lead to the development of more accessible and reliable diagnostic tools as well as timely intervention and support that could improve outcomes for autistic individuals in the future.

The paper, , was published today in the journal Autism Research.

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Toronto and Region Conservation Authority (TRCA) and 91亚色 execute a Memorandum of Understanding to set the stage for future collaboration 聽

TORONTO, April 28, 2025 鈥� Toronto and Region Conservation Authority (TRCA) and 91亚色 are proud to announce the signing of a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) between the two organizations to formalize their long-standing relationship. The MOU highlights potential areas of collaboration and lays out a process for working together on specific projects and initiatives.

The MOU was executed in a signing ceremony on April 25 that included 91亚色 President and Vice-Chancellor, Rhonda Lenton, TRCA Chair and City of Toronto Councillor, Paul Ainslie, and the Chief Executive Officer of TRCA, John MacKenzie. The signing ceremony took place during the official opening of TRCA鈥檚 new, environmentally sustainable administrative office building at 5 Shoreham Drive, Toronto, which marks TRCA鈥檚 return to the 91亚色 neighbourhood.

鈥淭RCA is thrilled to enter this MOU with our neighbour, 91亚色. We already have a history of productive collaboration together, but this MOU formalizes our important relationship. The partnership between TRCA and 91亚色 brings forward our complementary strengths as researchers, educators, employers, and facility owners and managers, and together we can benefit our surrounding community, region, and country for years to come," says John MacKenzie, chief executive officer, Toronto and Region Conservation Authority.

Both 91亚色 and TRCA have strong foundations in research and mobilizing knowledge to help protect the environment and support their surrounding communities. The MOU will facilitate projects that leverage both organizations鈥� expertise and could include initiatives such as: research collaborations on ecology and biodiversity, water resources, and climate change; student engagement, training and career development; community and stakeholder engagement; knowledge mobilization; utilizing TRCA or 91亚色 sites for research or programming; and corporate and facility sustainability. 

鈥淐hampioning sustainability is a collective effort, and we are proud to partner with TRCA to create new research and learning opportunities for our researchers, faculty, and students while addressing the most pressing environmental challenges of our time. With our shared commitment to excellence and community engagement, this new MOU exemplifies the kind of collaboration we need to ensure the health and well-being of both people and the planet,鈥� says Rhonda Lenton, president and vice-chancellor, 91亚色.

About Toronto and Region Conservation Authority (TRCA)

Since 1957, Toronto and Region Conservation Authority (TRCA), as enabled through the provincial Conservation Authorities Act, has taken action to enhance our region鈥檚 natural environment and protect our land, water, and communities from the impacts of flooding and increasingly extreme weather events 鈥� Ontario鈥檚 leading cause of public emergencies. 

As the region鈥檚 first line of defence against natural hazards, TRCA maintains vital infrastructure and provides programs and services that promote public health and safety, protecting people and property. TRCA mobilizes a science-based approach to provide sound policy advice, leveraging its position as a not-for-profit operating in the broader public sector to achieve collective impacts within our communities and across all levels of government. 

TRCA鈥檚 dedication to its employees and sustainability has earned it recognition as both one of and one of . These distinctions highlight TRCA鈥檚 commitment to fostering a supportive, innovative, and environmentally responsible workplace 鈥� dedicated to driving meaningful change and create lasting positive impacts in the communities it serves.

TRCA鈥檚 jurisdiction includes nine watersheds and their Lake Ontario shorelines, spanning six upper-tier and fifteen lower-tier municipalities and representing almost five million people, approximately 10% of Canada鈥檚 population. 

To learn more about TRCA, visit . 

About 91亚色

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