How does government coordination in the strategic sectors affect the impact of relational resources on firm intellectual property (IP) development in emerging economies?

A research team led by Professor Justin Tan of 91��ɫ’s Schulich School of Business attempted to address this question by investigating innovative performance in China’s high-speed train sector.

The research, reported in a new paper recently published in the Journal of International Business Studies, challenged some widely held conventional wisdom. For instance, contrary to prior findings that international joint ventures (IJVs) lead technological innovation in the emerging economies, IJVs under-perform in IP development in the context of China’s high-speed train sector, whereas government-affiliated domestic firms out-perform.

The authors argue government coordination in the strategic sector has escalated cross-border competitive tension but facilitated domestic collaborative innovation. Hence, IJVs face relational liabilities that hinder IP breakthrough, whereas government-affiliated domestic firms can leverage relational assets for innovation. The authors further examine the effects of ego-network density in the innovation network, which captures the degree to which a firm relies on partners to innovate. Consistent with this theory, innovation network density hampers IP development for the IJVs but promotes it for the government-affiliated domestic firms.

The findings, based on comprehensive proprietary panel data from 1993 to 2014, offer actionable insights for innovation managers and policymakers in the strategic sectors. Firm managers should consider the potential influences from government coordination when acquiring relational resources for innovation. Policymakers should keep in mind how government actions may influence both inter-firm collaboration and competition when building an innovation network. Given the significant role, Canadian companies such as Bombardier have played in the development of the Chinese rail transportation equipment manufacturing industry, and many other key suppliers who are customers, suppliers, research and development partners, and competitors, this line of research has profound implications for vital Canadian economic interests.

The research paper, titled “Relational Assets or Liabilities? Competition, Collaboration, and Firm Intellectual Property Breakthrough in the Chinese High-Speed Train Sector,” was co-authored by Aurora Liu Genin (PhD, Schulich), assistant professor of management at the University of Massachusetts Amherst in the U.S.; Tan, professor of management and the Newmont Chair in Business Strategy at the Schulich School of Business in Canada; and Juan Song, professor of management at Central South University in China. It is part of a comprehensive research project about governance reform, innovation and technology development in the rail transportation equipment manufacturing industry. Another research paper from the project was also published in the Journal of International Business Studies in 2021 (“State Governance and Technological Innovation in Emerging Economies: State-Owned Enterprise Restructuration and Institutional Logic Dissonance in China’s High-Speed Train Sector”).

A copy of the study can be found��.

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From there, the western honey bee (Apis mellifera) expanded independently into Africa and Europe creating seven separate geographically and genetically distinct evolutionary lineages traceable back to Western Asia.

The western honey bee is used for crop pollination and honey production throughout most of the world, and has a remarkable capacity for surviving in vastly different environments – from tropical rainforest, to arid environments, to temperate regions with cold winters. It is native to Africa, Europe and Asia, and was recently believed to have originated in Africa.

The research team sequenced 251 genomes from 18 subspecies from the honey bee’s native range and used this data to reconstruct the origin and pattern of dispersal of honey bees. The team found that an Asian origin – likely western Asia – was strongly supported by the genetic data.

“As one of the world’s most important pollinators, it’s essential to know the origin of the western honey bee to understand its evolution, genetics and how it adapted as it spread,” says corresponding author Professor����of 91��ɫ’s Faculty of Science.

The study also highlights that the bee genome has several “hot spots” that allowed honey bees to adapt to new geographic areas. While the bee genome has more than 12,000 genes, only 145 of them had repeated signatures of adaptation associated with the formation of all major honey bee lineages found today.

“Our research suggests that a core-set of genes allowed the honey bee to adapt to a diverse set of environmental conditions across its native range by regulating worker and colony behaviour,” says 91��ɫ PhD student Kathleen Dogantzis of the Faculty of Science, who led the research.

To learn more, watch these videos:  and .

This adaptation also allowed for the development of some 27 different subspecies of honey bees.

“It’s important to understand how locally adapted subspecies and colony-level selection on worker bees, contributes to the fitness and diversity of managed colonies,” says Dogantzis.

The sequencing of these bees also led to the discovery of two distinct lineages, one in Egypt and another in Madagascar.

The researchers hope their study finally lays to the rest the question of where the western honey bee came from so future research can further explore how they adapted to different climates and geographic areas.

The paper,��“,” was published today in the journal��.

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Canada’s stringent eligibility screenings for medical transition – to prevent “regret” or detransition – ignore transgender people’s gender-related perspectives and experiences, says 91��ɫ Professor��, lead author of a new study.

It’s impossible for anyone to know with 100 per cent certainty how they will feel after transformative medical interventions such as gender-affirming hormones, says MacKinnon. “So, the common narratives that a trans person who detransitions is a failure, or is in a botched or medically harmed body, or was never really trans, reflect cisgender misunderstandings about trans people.”

According to the study, “” published in the December issue of Elsevier’s Social Science & Medicine journal, there is little evidence that detransition is caused by medical failure, at the same time, clinical assessments suggest clinicians’ fear of liability.

The study highlights that the medical standards were created in the 1960s by cisgender doctors who largely feared lawsuits by patients seeking medical transition; and the eligibility checklists that health care providers use today are reflective of this history.

Another concern identified in the study is that some surgeons send their transgender patients for additional psychiatric assessments, and the psychiatrist acts as an added security blanket to assuage worries about transition regret and malpractice lawsuit. These practices erroneously cast transgender people as more “risky” patients, the study reveals.

Since transgender identity is conflated with mental illness, double standards in surgical decision-making arise, notes MacKinnon, who is in the School of Social Work, Faculty of Liberal Arts & Professional Studies. “Cisgender women, for instance, are never required to get a psychiatric capacity assessment for breast implants. Cisgender men do not require a capacity assessment to have chest implant surgery. But transgender people have to go through ‘mental readiness’ assessments.”

The study also highlights that there are barely any quality peer-reviewed studies to substantiate the claim that regret/detransitioning is on the rise.

“Even if detransition rates are increasing, we don’t know the proportion of those who truly regret this outcome, versus those who have a positive outlook,” says MacKinnon. “Adding to the problem are disproportionate media representations which amplify only negative or ‘regretful’ detransition stories, while excluding detransitioners who experience their transition outcomes as neutral or even positive.”

The research team included Florence Ashley, Faculty of Law and Joint Centre for Bioethics, University of Toronto; Hannah Kia in the School of Social Work, University of British Columbia; J. S.H. Lam, Centre for Addiction and Mental Health; Yonah Krakowsky, Division of Urology, University of Toronto; and Lori Ross, Dalla Lana School of Public Health, University of Toronto.

Based on this research, MacKinnon is leading a follow-up study, which aims to develop better guidance for care providers who work with transgender, detransitioned and other gender diverse populations who stop transitioning or change the direction of their gender transitions.

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Most recently, the team published two articles, “,” and “,” based on their research focusing on volcanic risk assessment and emergency evacuation simulation, and visualization for the island.

Coincidently, the research is gaining attention and provides useful resources as the island’s volcano is becoming more active during the past month. On Nov. 22, the mayor of Vulcano, Marco Giorgianni,����of nearly 300 people and banned tourists due to increased volcanic activity and gases near the La Fossa crater.

“This island hosts a number of active volcanic systems,” says Asgary, an expert in disaster, emergency and business continuity management and associate professor in the Faculty of Liberal Arts & Professional Studies. He explains the term ‘Vulcanian eruption,’ derived from the island of Vulcano, located in Sicily’s Aeolian archipelago, generally involves moderate explosions of gas laden with volcanic ash.

“We have been running annual emergency exercise training and field investigations on this island for more than a decade and have developed a number of risk assessment models, emergency evacuation simulations and virtual reality applications to help local and national emergency managers, and the public to better prepare for possible future eruptions,” says Asgary.

The studies contain research focused on evacuation planning and management, representing a key aspect of volcanic crises. Evacuation is a very complicated decision process and operation when it comes to volcanos. Effective evacuation allows for the protection of people from hazards while minimizing potential impacts on the economy and livelihood.

One research article explains, the “assessment of evacuation scenarios that consider human and economic impact is best done in a pre-disaster context as it helps authorities develop evacuation plans to make informed decisions outside the highly stressful time period that characterizes crisis.”

The team developed an intergrAteD VolcanIc risk asSEssment (ADVISE), focusing on two temporal dimensions that authorities must address in a volcanic context: short-term emergency management and long-term risk management.

“Our research team has done extensive analysis of hazards and vulnerability and the overall risks of volcanic activities in the island by creating various maps and models that can be used to identify high-risk areas regarding different volcanic hazards such as lava flow, ballistics, tsunami, ash accumulation, lahar, CO2 gassing and more,” says Asgary.

The team’s ADVISE model addresses the potential physical, functional and systemic damage determined by combining the available information on hazard, exposed systems and vulnerability.

“Throughout this period, we have been working very closely with experts from Civil Protection Italy and the INGV (National Institute of Geophysics and Volcanology) in particular. We have also worked with the local school and the community members to raise awareness,” says Asgary.

The last eruption on Vulcano was more than 130 years ago and lasted from Aug. 2, 1888, to Mar. 22, 1890. Volcanic regions that represent tourist attractions and where tourists are allowed to go very close to hazardous areas are especially risky.

The island of Vulcano is home to nearly 800 permanent residents. During the midst of tourism season (April to October), the island could see up to 28,000 per month.

“It would be interesting to see which scenarios we have been examining during the past 10 years will unfold if an eruption occurs. Considering we are currently in the low season when the total population of the island is already low, and that the volcano’s activity is rising slowly, and by taking initial proactive measures, fortunately, we can minimize human impacts in case of an eruption. However, the impacts on the properties and infrastructure will remain to be seen if an eruption occurs,” says Asgary.

In previous years, Asgary would invite two students from 91��ɫ’s  program to join a group of international trainees and supervising professors to participate in a training program, to study the island and conduct field research. Students would learn about various volcanic hazards, vulnerability and risk assessment, emergency management and evacuation planning.

Asgary mentions any future visits and training on the island will depend on the type and length of the possible eruption.

By Alysia Burdi,��YFile��communications officer

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Predicting the success of cancer treatment strategies is paramount for clinicians to provide the highest standard of care to patients. While predicting these treatment outcomes is a difficult science, Lassonde School of Engineering Professor  has been making significant progress in doing just that.

Sadeghi-Naini, an associate professor in the Electrical Engineering and Computer Science department and 91��ɫ Research Chair in Quantitative Imaging and Smart Biomarkers, has been working in concert with clinicians from Sunnybrook Hospital to improve the standard of care for cancer patients.

Brain metastases, a cancer in the brain resulting from a primary cancer in another part of the body that has spread, represent an underdeveloped yet critical area in cancer treatment. While whole brain radiation therapy (WBRT) is a treatment option, it is associated with negative side effects such as cognitive dysfunction. This is what has triggered a paradigm shift in radiotherapy, moving towards more precise irradiation of tumors known as stereotactic radiotherapy (SRT).

A recently published study in  entitled, “” by Sadeghi-Naini and his team has outlined a methodology to predict how patients will respond to SRT based off of standard-of-care imaging. Clinicians can use this information, at pre-treatment, to facilitate the best plan for patients.

Using quantitative magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), Sadeghi-Naini’s team can predict whether a patient’s tumor is likely to be controlled by SRT or if the treatment is likely to fail.

“All patients undergo MRI and CT as part of their standard-of-care treatment planning,” explained Sadeghi-Naini. “Therefore, this method has the benefit of not requiring anything additional from the patient side, but it has the potential to improve their treatment plan.”

These images are acquired prior to the treatment and, through quantitative analysis, the morphology and heterogeneity of the tumor can be characterized. Specifically, Sadeghi-Naini is concerned with quantifying the heterogeneity within the tumor site and its surroundings as these varied features are shown to strongly correlate with treatment outcomes. His machine learning (ML) models have demonstrated improved accuracy and sensitivity compared to existing methods.

Current medical practice for evaluating treatment outcomes revolve around clinical follow-ups post-treatment, but if the treatment is not successful, as it is for at least 20 per cent of all patients, this process poses a major issue. With clinicians knowing the likelihood of treatment success in advance, they can make more informed decisions and potentially improve the rate of successful outcomes for patients.

“The features identified with machine learning (ML) algorithms are not easily interpreted by clinicians and, at a glance, individuals can only describe them in terms of heterogeneity,” said Sadeghi-Naini. “Using ML, we can differentiate these features and create a model with statistics that we can provide to clinicians to enable them to make the most informed decision possible.”

Going forward, Sadeghi-Naini is aiming to acquire data from larger cohorts of patients to further optimize and validate these methods. While his model is already a major improvement from existing methods of prediction, his team is investigating other ML solutions such as deep learning approaches to enhance the model.

Working within this interdisciplinary field is a long journey of practice, as the jargon and terminology varies drastically between medicine, engineering and computer science. Sadeghi-Naini has worked with clinicians for years and currently holds a cross appointment as a scientist at Sunnybrook Hospital. The willingness of his collaborating clinicians to work closely with him has allowed students from Sadeghi-Naini’s team to gain unique experiences working with clinicians and in clinical environments.

“My students have the opportunity to spend time regularly at [Sunnybrook] hospital, acquiring the data, observing the processes and working directly with clinicians,” said Sadeghi-Naini. “These worlds of engineering and medicine are very different, so this is a great opportunity for students to see how interdisciplinary projects are run and learn from both perspectives.”

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The study, published in the journal��Sociology of Health & Illness, considers progress to reduce health inequalities through public policy action is difficult in Canada, and though researchers and advocates provide data on the sources of these inequalities and means of reducing them, it does not provoke action.

Conducted by researchers from 91��ɫ and Ontario Tech University, the study states the causes of health inequalities – particular groups in Canada coming to sicken and die due to their living and working conditions — have been neglected by governing authorities. Despite numerous studies suggesting public policies that would address these causes, little if anything is being done.

In this inquiry, researchers examined whether polemics and anger mobilization – usually absent in health inequalities research and advocacy – could influence Canadian governing authorities to address health inequalities through public policy action.

Usually, terms such as health inequalities, health inequities and adverse health outcomes are used to describe these processes. To move the health equity agenda forward, the research explores the potential use of high-valence terms – such as structural violence, social death and social murder – to force government to understand, and act upon, the sources of health inequalities

“We conclude by outlining the potential benefits and threats posed by polemics and anger mobilization as means of promoting health equity.

Previous studies show there are two primary approaches taken by Canadian researchers and advocates to create impetus for action: providing statistical data that reflects the extent and sources of health inequalities; and, documenting the lived experiences of those encountering these adverse health outcomes. It has also been reported that researchers who undertake critical analysis of the structures and processes contributing to adverse health dispute the view that providing information to governing authorities will, by itself, provoke action.

“In this paper, therefore, we explore the value of making explicit the adverse health effects of what the World Health Organization (2008) terms ‘a toxic combination of poor social policies and programmes’ by adding terms such as structural violence, social death and social murder to health inequalities discourse,” the study states.

The researchers are documenting the frequency of use of terms such as structural violence, social death and social murder in the academic literature as well as in mainstream and social media, and will investigate the reactions these terms elicit from researchers, advocates and students.

“These inquiries will help determine whether polemics and anger arousal are productive ways of provoking public policy responses to health inequalities or, instead, lead to the dismissal of researchers’ and advocates’ arguments, thereby creating an additional barrier to reducing health inequalities. Evidence of initial success in Canada would see the placing of health inequalities on the public policy agendas of governing authorities,” the study states.

Read the study��.

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The COVID-19 pandemic exposed large gaps in sickness and caregiving leave provisions available to workers across the country. To make up for these shortcomings, federal, provincial and territorial governments had to introduce a suite of emergency income-support programs and job-protection laws. With these temporary measures set to expire in coming months, a����by the Institute for Research on Public Policy (IRPP) calls for permanent reforms to provide access to short-term paid and protected sickness and caregiving leaves to all working Canadians.

In their IRPP study, co-authors Eric Tucker and Leah Vosko, both 91��ɫ professors, recommend that workers be eligible for 15 days of paid leave to cover both sickness and caregiving needs, which would bring Canada in line with its international peers.

“This is very much in keeping with employment standards seen elsewhere around the world. In fact, Canada is a laggard in this regard; we have a lot of catching up to do,” says Vosko. “Prior to COVID, less than half of workers in Canada had access to employer-provided paid and protected leaves.”

As was shown during the pandemic, when workers decide not to take time off because of inadequate leave protections and benefits, it can have major repercussions – not just for those individuals and their employers, but for society at large. Sick people who go to work can spread infection to their co-workers. In addition, neglecting one’s health can lead to longer absences, more serious problems and lower productivity.

The authors also emphasize that women are disproportionately affected by inadequate paid sickness and caregiving leaves, based on evidence that women are more likely to be primary caregivers and to be in precarious jobs, as are racialized workers or recent immigrants.

“Now is the time to change our leave regimes,” says Tucker, adding that separate measures will be required for the growing numbers of self-employed workers who are currently without any coverage.

“Once the pandemic-response measures expire, the old rules that forced sick workers or those with caregiving responsibilities to decide whether they could afford to take time off from work will once again prevail. Governments at all levels need to act now to permanently redesign their short-term protected sickness and caregiving leave regimes.”

The study, “,” can be downloaded from the��.

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Researchers at 91��ɫ’s Stem Cell Research Group in the Faculty of Health studied the role of a protein called p107, which they uncovered to be a key and fundamental component of the cellular metabolism network during cell division. The results provide a conceptual advance for how muscle stem cells in vivo and in vitro use energy to divide.

These findings on the role of the p107 protein have been published in the journal��Nature Communications, and show it can manipulate the energy generation capacity of mitochondria, which results in a direct reduction of cell division. The p107 protein expression is found in most dividing cells and the findings now identify a potential universal cellular mechanism that could have implications for studies on cancer cell proliferation and stem cell fate decisions.

Corresponding author Anthony Scimè, a 91��ɫ associate professor and leader of the Stem Cell Research Group, Molecular, Cellular and Integrative Physiology in the Faculty of Health, and his team say p107, a protein in the retinoblastoma (Rb) family, accomplishes this by sensing the overall energy requirements of muscle stem cells. It blocks energy production from the main source, known as the mitochondria, by repressing mitochondrial-encoded gene transcription. This reduces the production of ATP or energy in the cell by limiting electron-transport-chain-complex formation. The findings provide a conceptual advance for a universal mechanism for how cells regulate energy production to control cell division, which might include cancer cell division.

“This was really a very novel finding because no one suspected that: a) this historically known cell cycle protein would be involved in regulating metabolism; and b) that it would do it by actually entering into the mitochondria and downplay the ATP or energy produced,” said Scimè. “We found that if we sustained the levels of the protein p107 only in the mitochondria, we were able to stop the cell cycle and stop the cells from dividing. ATP output, controlled by the mitochondrial function of p107, is directly associated with the cell cycle rate.”

During the study, researchers looked at muscle stem cells and used a multitude of experimental techniques and methods involving molecular, cellular and whole-body applications. Different types of stem cells can be found throughout the human body and several can only differentiate into cells that belong to the same tissue or organ. In several subsequent experiments, Scimè and his team measured the amount of total energy made by muscle stem cells while they were growing in the presence or absence of p107. These experiments showed that p107-deleted muscle stem cells generated more energy than the controls. Scimè says keeping p107 from the mitochondria had the opposite effect and resulted in an increase in the number of muscle stem cells that would be available for new muscle.

These findings suggest that during the cell cycle, p107 is monitoring how much energy the cell has, and if the cell has too much it will move into the mitochondria and slow down the ATP (energy) production.

The fine-tuned function of stem cells is essential for tissue function. Muscle diseases such as muscular dystrophy, and complications such as muscle loss during aging, are associated with poorly functioning muscle stem cells. These stem cells are required to make fresh muscle that are lost in these disorders. Researchers say an understanding of how muscle stem cells work is critical to finding new treatments.

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The paper, published Oct. 7, finds that the health-promoting possibilities of unionization and working under collective agreements are a neglected area among HPI contributors.

The research team – 91��ɫ graduate students��Jessica Muller,��Faisal A. Mohamed,��Mary Catherine Masciangelo,��Morris Komakech,��Anum Rafiq��and��Azeezah Jafry, along with 91��ɫ Professor����and Ontario Tech University Associate Professor Toba Bryant – explored reasons for this by drawing on an Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development report.

The report looks at the importance of collective bargaining and was used to identify areas for health promotion research and action.

Researchers considered 2,443 articles published in HPI since its inception and found that only 87 (3.6 per cent) mention unions, unionization, collective agreements or collective bargaining, with most saying little about their role in promoting health.

Further, the study shows that 20 articles make cursory references to unions, or refer to them as providing support and engagement opportunities for individuals, while 45 depict unions or union members as involved in a health promotion program or activity carried out by the authors or by government agencies.

The study shows that only 33 articles explicitly mention unions, unionization or collective agreements as potentially health promoting, which represents just 1.3 per cent of total HPI content since 1986.

With these findings, the paper suggests the journal can support the promotion of health research and action, and raise awareness, by:

• encouraging engagement with this article through HPI-invited commentaries;
• addressing the issue through special issues with a focus on union and labour influences on health and health-related public policy, as well as industrial relations and health; and
• creating an ongoing section dedicated to industrial relations.

Unionization and working under collective agreements appear to provide many health benefits, said Raphael. The benefits include improving the quality and equitable distribution of the social determinants of health of income through wages and benefits (Western and Rosenfeld, 2011), enhanced job security (Hagedorn et al., 2016) and better working conditions (Zoorob, 2018).

As well, enhanced wages and benefits achieved through unionization positively affect additional social determinants of early child development, food and housing security, and reduce social exclusion.

“Considering the growing influence of the corporate sector upon public policy in Canada and the declining numbers of Canadians belong to unions, refocusing on the health-promoting effects of unionization and working under collective agreements seems especially timely,” said Raphael.

To read the full study. “A bibliometric analysis of Health Promotion International content regarding unions, unionization and collective agreements,” visit��.

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For years, scientists have been trying to understand variations in El Niño and La Niña to accurately predict year-to-year disruptions to weather patterns. New findings from 91��ɫ scientists at the Lassonde School of Engineering suggest that a conveyer-like motion of heat across the equator in the Pacific Ocean – called the “cross-equatorial cell” (CEC) – may influence what a specific El Niño or La Niña looks like.

“What this CEC is doing, essentially, is sloshing water and heat back and forth between just north of the equator and just south of the equator,” said Neil Tandon, assistant professor in the Department of Atmospheric Science at the Lassonde School of Engineering and co-author of the study. “In this study, we looked at what is physically causing this motion in the ocean. Understanding this is crucial, because a small change in the location of ocean heat in turn shifts the locations of the atmospheric jet streams, which sets off a chain reaction, disturbing weather around the globe.”

El Niño and La Niña are both known to have global impacts on weather, from severe flooding to droughts and wildfires – impacting economies in every country. El Niño is a warming of the ocean in the tropical Pacific over a year, while La Niña is a cooling in this region. But not all El Niños and La Niñas are the same: some are stronger than others, and they can arise in different locations in the Pacific Ocean. 

Tandon says the movement of heat by the CEC may help explain this range of behaviour and improve our ability to predict year-to-year changes in weather patterns. Such improvements would benefit countries around the globe across a broad range of sectors, including agriculture, transportation, emergency response services, hydroelectric utilities and the insurance industry.

“When scientists see that there’s going to be a strong El Niño or a strong La Niña, everybody pays attention because no country is unaffected by that,” said Tandon. “If we can make any incremental step in improving our prediction of the impact of El Niño or La Niña, that has benefits for everybody in terms of being able to prepare for consequences such as severe flooding or droughts.”

Tandon and lead author Devanarayana Rao, a master’s student in Tandon’s lab, examined the CEC using multiple data sets. In the study, the team analyzed relationships between physical quantities to illustrate what this circulation looks like and why this circulation exists. Their analysis found that the CEC arises from the following sequence of events:

• year-to-year changes in winds generate changes in the density of ocean water north and south of the equator in the Pacific;
• these density changes generate changes in pressure north and south of the equator;
• these pressure changes in turn generate a flow of water across the equator in the upper ocean; and
• this flow in the upper ocean generates waves that extend to the deep ocean, where they drive flow in the opposite direction across the equator.

“This research is a part of ongoing efforts to improve our understanding of the climate system and to develop real-world solutions to the ongoing climate crisis,” said Rao. “In general, most [previous] studies focused on deep ocean circulation in the Atlantic Ocean, which is projected to have a ‘slowing down’ in the next 100 years. But, here, in the Pacific, the year-to-year variability of the deep ocean is much stronger than in the Atlantic, which can potentially influence the global weather patterns, the deep oceanic carbon reserve and marine habitat.”

“I think an important next step in this research would be to start looking at the models that we use to predict El Niño and La Niña, and specifically focus on what are those models doing as far as the CEC,” said Tandon. “If they’re doing something very different from what is actually observed, then what are the consequences? If we correct what the model is doing, does that lead to a better prediction?”

The study is published in the��American Geophysical Union’s��.

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