Research led by聽, Canada Research Chair and assistant professor of Earth and space science at Lassonde School of Engineering and research scientist at the Planetary Science Institute, uses multiple lines of evidence to show that smectites, a common type of clay, can explain all of the observations, putting the Mars lake theory on ice.

"Since being first reported as bodies of water, the scientific community has shown skepticism about the lake hypothesis and recent publications questioned if it was even possible to have liquid water," said Smith. Papers in 2018 and 2021 demonstrated that the amount of salt and heat required to thaw ice at the bottom of the polar cap was much more than Mars provides, and recent evidence showing these radar detections are much more widespread 鈥� to places even harder to thaw ice 鈥� put the idea further into question.

The research team, which includes researchers from the University of Arizona, Cornell, Purdue and Tulane universities, used experimental and modelling work to demonstrate that smectites can better explain the radar observations made by the MARSIS instrument aboard the European Space Agency鈥檚 Mars Express orbiter. Further, they found spectral evidence that smectites are present at the edges of the south polar cap.

鈥淪mectites are very abundant on Mars, covering about half the planet, especially in the Southern Hemisphere," said Smith. 鈥淭hat knowledge, along with the radar properties of smectites at cryogenic temperatures, points to them being the most likely explanation to the riddle."

Experiments done at 91亚色 measured the radar characteristics of hydrated smectites at room temperature and cryogenic temperatures. The radar characteristics in question are two numbers that represent the real and imaginary parts of the dielectric constant. Both numbers are important for fully characterizing a material, but the 2018 study used modelling that included only the real part of the dielectric value, leaving out certain classes of materials from being considered 鈥� namely clays.

Once the experimental measurements were completed, data was evaluated using code. It was in these simulations that researchers found that frozen clays have numbers big enough to make the reflections.

Smectites聽are a class of clay that is formed when basalt (the volcanic rock that comprises most of Mars' surface) breaks down chemically in the presence of liquid water.

"Detecting possible clay minerals in and below the south polar ice cap is important because it tells us that the ice includes sediments that have interacted with water sometime in the past, either in the ice cap or before the ice was there,鈥� said Briony Horgan, co-author and associate professor in Earth, atmospheric and planetary sciences at Purdue University. 鈥淪o, while our work shows that there may not be liquid water and an associated habitable environment for life under the cap today, it does tell us about water that existed in this area in the past."

To support this new hypothesis, Smith conducted experiments in his lab with equipment designed for measuring dielectric values. To simulate the conditions beneath Mars' south polar cap as best as possible, his team froze the clays to -50 C and measured them again, something that had never been done before. Smith adds that the infrared absorptions attributable to these minerals are present in south polar orbital visible-near infrared reflectance spectra. Because these minerals are both present at the south pole and can cause the reflections, the team believes this to be a more viable scenario than the presence of liquid water. No salt or heat is required.

鈥淲e used our lab measurements of clay minerals as the input for a radar reflection model and found that the results of the model matched very well with the real, observed data,鈥� said Dan Lalich, postdoctoral researcher at the Cornell Center for Astrophysics and Planetary Science at Cornell University and second author on the study. 鈥淲hile it's disappointing that liquid water might not actually be present below the ice today, this is still a cool observation that might help us learn more about conditions on ancient Mars.鈥�

"We analyzed the MARSIS radar data and identified observations with high-power values at the base of the south polar layered deposits, both in the proposed lake region and elsewhere," said Jenny Whitten, co-author and planetary scientist in the Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences at Tulane University.

"The first reason the bright reflectors cannot be water is because some of them continue from underground onto the surface. If that is the case, then we should see springs, which we don't," said Stefano Nerozzi, postdoctoral Fellow in the Lunar and Planetary Laboratory and Department of Geosciences at the University of Arizona and co-author. "Not only that, but multiple reflectors are stacked on top of each other, and some are even found right in the middle of the polar cap. If this were water, this would be physically impossible."

Putting the results in perspective, Smith says the answer is clear.

鈥淣ow, we have the trifecta. One, we measured dielectric properties of materials that are known to exist on over 50 per cent of Mars' surface and found them to have very high values. Two, we modelled how those numbers would respond in Mars' south-polar conditions and found them to match the radar observations well. Three, we demonstrated that these minerals are at the south pole. Because the liquid water theory required incredible amounts of heat, which is six to eight times more than Mars provides, and more salt than Mars has, it was already implausible," he said. "Now, the clays can explain the observations with absolutely no qualifiers or asterisks.鈥�

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Physics Professor Scott Menary, Faculty of Science

Scott Menary discusses the breakthrough that changed the way scientists look at the universe and contemplates 91亚色鈥檚 earning its spot on an international stage.

Physics Professor Scott Menary, of 91亚色鈥檚 Faculty of Science, contributed to a game-changing research endeavour at CERN 鈹� the subject of a 2016 article in the journal聽Nature 鈹� further establishing the University鈥檚 reputation for excellence in physics.

In this Q&A, Menary聽shares the story of the breakthrough related to the Big Bang theory聽and reflects on 91亚色 as both a unique, community-based environment for physics students and Faculty members, and a recognized and highly valued scientific contributor on a global scale.

Q. This research was part of the ongoing ALPHA experiment, an international collaboration based at CERN whose aim is stable trapping of antihydrogen atoms. What were the objectives of this new research?

A. The purpose was to compare the antimatter system to the matter system to see if there were any differences. We have hydrogen, the most precisely measured chemical element in science. Now we want to look at the antimatter version of it, and see if we can make the same measurements. What may be shocking to most people is that we expect antimatter and matter to be the same in all its properties 鈹�聽the same mass, the same value of the charge.

In the theoretical predictions of the Big Bang theory, matter and antimatter are exactly the same. That theory is the most precise theory we鈥檝e ever created. But something鈥檚 wrong there in the sense that in the Big Bang theory, matter and antimatter are created in equal amounts. So what happened to the antimatter? There has to be some difference between matter and antimatter, and yet all of our theories say there isn鈥檛.

At the end of the day, physics is an experimental subject. We test nature.

Q.聽What is the significance of this research?

A. It turned out to be the best antimatter-to-matter comparison.

Q. This work was part of a huge joint venture, executed at CERN in Geneva, Switzerland. Describe this collaborative international effort聽and 91亚色鈥檚 unique contribution.

A. We have 45 scientists at work on this, from Denmark, the U.K., Brazil, the U.S., Canada and Israel. This research was particularly collaborative because it involved many specialists. My contribution was to a specific type of hardware, a so-called silicon vertex detector. That鈥檚 why they asked me to join.

鈥淲e鈥檝e gone from not really being involved in international projects to having quite a strong reputation. We are welcomed into collaborations. Now the physics community knows where we are: 91亚色.鈥澛犫�� Scott Menary

Q. What does this high-profile research say about 91亚色鈥檚 position on an international stage in physics and astronomy?

A. There are three of us working in high-energy physics: myself, [Professors] Sampa Bhadra and Wendy Taylor. We all work on collaborative international projects.

We鈥檝e gone from not really being involved in international projects to having quite a strong reputation. We are welcomed into collaborations. There was one high-energy physicist here 20 years ago, Bill Frisken, who did collaborate internationally but the group has grown. For sure, now the physics community knows where we are: 91亚色.

Q. What can you say about the importance of funding this kind of research?

A. This is really fundamental research. Historically, things have always come out of that 鈥� things that we didn鈥檛 expect or know about before. You can鈥檛 predict that kind of thing.

It鈥檚 very important to fund fundamental research. You need this research to do applied research. It鈥檚 incredibly important to do these things because you don鈥檛 know what will come out of it and, of course, that鈥檚 what makes it exciting.

Q. One year has passed since the Nature聽article. Has this research opened up more possibilities for collaboration or different avenues of research?聽

A. That paper is just one in a series of papers we鈥檙e doing. As we speak, my colleagues are at CERN zapping antihydrogen with lasers to try to see if it shines the same way that hydrogen does. We also want to test how antihydrgen falls. Does antimatter feel gravity the same way that matter does? We鈥檙e building a new detector to look at this. It鈥檚 got a great name: Radial Time Projection Chamber. Sounds very Star Trekky.

鈥淚t鈥檚 very important to fund fundamental research. It鈥檚 incredibly important to do these things because you don鈥檛 know what will come out of it and, of course, that鈥檚 what makes it exciting.鈥澛犫�� Scott Menary

This research is all with the same focus: comparing antihydrogen to hydrogen.

Q. Any suggestions for the next generation, the future physicists who might be interested in studying at 91亚色?

A. Follow your heart; if something interests you, go for it. We can offer the opportunity to do research in quite a number of things. Whatever interests you, we probably have people here that are good at it. This is a huge university and so even a midsized physics department is actually comparable to most physics departments in the country.

The thing about our department is that it鈥檚 big enough that we have a broad range of topics, but it鈥檚 small enough in that we all know each other.

Q. Is there a sense of community in 91亚色鈥檚 physics department?

A. Yes, for sure. We know the students, and the students know us on a more personal level. I think there鈥檚 a really good relationship between students and faculty.

Don't miss this YouTube video, featuring Scott Menary, the first in a new series called "2 Minutes, 3 Questions," launched by the Office of the Vice-President Research & Innovation at 91亚色.

This research was funded by CNPq, FINEP-RENAFAE (Brazil); FNU, Carlsberg Foundation (Denmark); JSPS Postdoctoral Fellowships for Research Abroad (Japan); ISF (Israel); STFC, EPSRC, the Royal Society and the Leverhulme Trust (UK); DOE,NSF (USA); and VR (Sweden). Canadian funding came from NSERC, NRC/TRIUMF, AITF and FRQNT.

The article, 鈥�,鈥� was published in Nature (2016). For more information about Menary and his research, read the related 聽and visit his .

By Megan Mueller, manager, research communications, Office of the Vice-President Research & Innovation, 91亚色, muellerm@yorku.ca

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Here are Professor Emeritus of Space Science Gordon Shepherd, Professor of Space Science Ian McDade and Project Scientist Brian Solheim聽speaking about聽the space shuttle program, what it聽has meant for their research and the future.

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The space shuttle Atlantis landed this morning聽at the Kennedy Space Center in Florida. Atlantis lifted off July 8 on the final flight of the shuttle program, STS-135, a 13-day mission to the International Space Station. Atlantis carried a crew of four and the Raffaello multipurpose logistics module containing supplies and spare parts for the space station.

The STS-135 astronauts flying the final mission are: commander Chris Ferguson, pilot Doug Hurley and mission specialists Sandy Magnus and Rex Walheim.

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Above: Members of the 91亚色 Rover Team pose for a group photo in the cool of the evening at the Mars Research Station, Hanksville, Utah

91亚色 first entered the challenge, sponsored by TASC (The Analytic Sciences Corporation) Inc., four years ago and has finished in the top three every year, including a first-place finish in 2009. The challenge: "Design and build the next generation of Mars rovers that will one day work alongside human explorers in the field."

Above: EVE travels the hostile clime of the Utah desert

The closest race came between the second and third place teams, and Oregon State University, who were separated by only 16 points.聽 All together, the top three teams of 2011 were the same top three from 2010, but with different results.

鈥淭he level of sophistication shown by these teams was overwhelming,鈥� remarked URC director Kevin Sloan.聽 鈥淭hese teams poured themselves into their rover projects over the past year, and it clearly showed.聽 The level of competition was taken to an entirely new level this year.鈥�

Above: EVE (Enhanced Vehicle Explorer)

The 91亚色 team left Toronto with its EVE (Enhanced Vehicle Explorer) on May 27 and drove for three days to Hanksville, Utah, arriving early to ensure they could put in some field test time in the environment.

鈥淭he past few days have been intense with emotional highs and lows,鈥� said team member Shailja Sahani. 鈥淓very team member has been putting in at least 20-hour days to make the competition a success, with some sleeping only five hours in the last three days.

鈥淓veryone came together as a team with no prodding from the leadership; they simply picked up tools and got to work. Although we were well prepared before the competition, the desert environment and harsh operating conditions required many last-minute repairs and alterations.

"Our success came from our ability to fix the rover in situ and get back to the task, while other teams were left stranded,鈥� said team member Jordan Bailey.

Bailey, one of two students responsible for the team's finances and marketing, told CBC News he thinks the current rover is the team's "best one yet." Last year, the team faced multiple equipment failures as a result of the record temperatures, which soared to 38 C in the shade. This year's model has a more robust suspension, a finer control system and better temperature regulation than its predecessor, Bailey said.

Above: Jordan Bailey & Isaac DeSouza work into the night to get EVE ready

The rover cost about $13,000 to build, slightly below the $15,000 maximum allowed. The YURT is sponsored by 91亚色, and . The faculty advisers from 91亚色鈥檚 Department of Earth & Space Science & Engineering, Faculty of Science & Engineering were Professor Michael Daly and Professor . The engineering adviser was graduate student Mark Post.

The participants included three teams from Poland, three from the United States and two from Canada. By the end of the competition, one team from each country had placed in the top three.聽 The Magma2 team from the Bialystok University of Technology in Poland pulled away from the other two teams to an impressive victory.

Magma2 was the first European team to win URC.聽 They also were the first team to ever deploy an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) as part of the competition.

For more information, visit聽the website.

Republished courtesy of YFile鈥� 91亚色鈥檚 daily e-bulletin.

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The finding marks the first time that fog has been directly observed on the neighbouring world, adding to evidence that modern Mars experiences a type of ongoing water cycle akin to Earth's.

"Because the atmosphere is so thin on Mars, there is nothing to keep in the heat overnight, so the ground cools off very quickly," said study co-author , a [n NSERC post doctoral fellow and] planetary scientist at 91亚色 [Faculty of Science & Engineering].

"Heat from the air is lost to the ground, so the air close to the ground gets colder, and as that pocket of (cold) air gets larger," more water vapour in the atmosphere condenses into ice crystals, and the fog gets thicker, Moores said.

"The fog starts closer to the ground and rises in height over time, so the cloud gets thicker and thicker and higher and higher as the night goes on," he added.

Eventually the icy haze begins to shower the ground with a light sprinkling of snow-like particles. The shower is not quite snowfall, the scientists say, but is perhaps more akin to the "diamond dust" that falls from the skies on some cold nights in Earth's Arctic regions.

"Because we have the fog," Moores said, "that means that there is a reservoir of water [in the atmosphere] to interact with subsurface water on a daily basis."

The Martian-fog study was published in the Feb. 25 issue of Geophysical Research Letters.

Moores is also a member of the (CRESS), which has had a significant role in the lander mission.

Posted by Elizabeth Monier-Williams, research communications officer, with files courtesy of YFile鈥� 91亚色鈥檚 daily e-bulletin.

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The key mandate for these meetings is to enable researchers from 91亚色 and from across India to establish joint bilateral research and developmental projects. 91亚色, the third largest university in Canada, is the country's leading interdisciplinary research and teaching institution with an academic community of 50,000 students and 7,000 faculty and staff, as well as 200,000 alumni worldwide.

Leader of the delegation is , dean of the Faculty of Science & Engineering, and professor in 91亚色鈥檚 Department of Earth & Space Sciences & Engineering. Among others, Kozinski's brainchild is an anti-terrorism project evocatively called eWAR (Early Warning & Advance Response) system that seeks to detect, quantify and initiate an effective response to chemical and biological agents released in public buildings.

In a special interview to Business Line during his visit to this newspaper office in Mumbai despite a hectic schedule, Kozinski shared for the benefit of readers the mission's objectives, research priorities, funding and related matters:

Kozinski: India is one of our three focal points. We want to engage in projects with practical social applications. Specifically, we are looking at, among other areas, space science which would cover micro and nano satellites to carry communications tools. Our focus would also be atmospheric monitoring to study global warming and climate change.

Also, we are keen to develop partnerships in the field of biotechnology for healthcare; analyse propagation of infectious diseases 鈥� their origin, spread, control and eradication through bio-sensors.

We firmly believe in creating value and sharing it with the society. Where societal benefits are involved, I am somewhat wary of creating barriers like intellectual property rights and so on. We want the society at large to benefit from our research.

Republished courtesy of YFile 鈥� 91亚色鈥檚 daily e-bulletin.

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The group will visit聽seven top-tier universities and research institutes during their trip. Along the way they will stop at聽the India Institute of Technology's聽facilities in聽Mumbai (Bombay) and Madras, the University of Calcutta, the Indian Space Research Organization,聽the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research together with visits to other聽institutes and universities during the nation-wide trip

鈥淥ur faculty considers international partnerships as the key cornerstone supporting our strategic priorities. Partnerships like those with India stimulate the spirit of innovation with clear focus on research outcomes that have an international impact,鈥� says Janusz Kozinski (right), dean of the Faculty of Science & Engineering at 91亚色 and a member of the聽delegation to India.

The key mandate for the trip聽is to enable researchers from 91亚色 and across India to establish joint bilateral research and development projects. Halfway through their trip, the 91亚色 delegation will pause to聽participate in a two-day聽workshop聽co-sponsored by the International Science聽& Technology Partnerships Canada, Global Innovation & Technology Alliance,聽the Society for Applied Microwave Electronics Engineering & Research and India's Defence Research & Development聽Organisation (DRDO).

The聽workshop will bring together聽more than 100 participants from research institutes and universities from Canada and England, and will include researchers and university vice-chancellors from across India.聽Rajagopala Chidambaram, the principal scientific adviser to the government of India, and Vijay Kumar Saraswat, director-general of DRDO, the secretary of defence聽research and development and scientific adviser to Indian Defence Minister Raksha Mantri, are among the diginitaries participating in the聽workshop.

This workshop will give participants the opportunity to discuss advances and innovations in their respective areas of research, exchange information and ideas and聽create further opportunities to聽establish research collaborations. The gathering will be held at the DRDO聽building in New Dehli.

Travelling in the 91亚色 Science & Engineering delegation are:

• ,聽professor, Department of Chemistry;
• , professor, Department of Physics & Astronomy and associate dean of academic affairs in the Faculty of Graduate聽Studies;
• , professor,聽Department of Earth聽& Space Science and Engineering;
• , professor,聽Department of Computer Science聽& Engineering
• ,聽professor,聽Department of Languages, Literatures & Linguistics, Faculty of Liberal Arts & Professional Studies
• , professor, Department of Chemistry;
• , professor,聽Department of Mathematics & Statistics;
• Paulina Karwowska-Desaulniers, research officer,聽Faculty of Science & Engineering;
• , dean,聽Faculty of Science & Engineering and professor, Department of Earth聽& Space Science and Engineering;
• , professor,聽Department of Earth聽& Space Science and Engineering;
• Brian Solheim, adjunct professor, Department of Earth聽& Space Science and Engineering;
• , professor,聽Department of Biology.

For more information about the trip and the 91亚色 Science & Engineering delegation, visit the website.

91亚色 computer science Professor Andrew Eckford is also .

Republished courtesy of YFile 鈥� 91亚色鈥檚 daily e-bulletin.

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Throughout November, the Vari Hall Rotunda will play host to displays and demonstrations featuring our faculty and graduate researchers. Drop by between 10 am and 2 pm each Wednesday to learn what 91亚色's researchers are doing.

The Research Month index on 91亚色's Research website contains complete information about the researchers, research centres and research support groups participating in the event.

Social sciences and humanities research 鈥� Nov. 3

Confirmed participants include:

• Institute for Science聽& Technology Studies
• 91亚色 Centre for Education聽& Community

Science and engineering research 鈥� Nov. 10

Confirmed participants include:

Health research 鈥� Nov.17

Confirmed participants include:

• Professor Joseph DeSouza, Faculty of Health, Department of Psychology
• Professor , Faculty of Health, School of Nursing
• Professor Jennifer Kuk, Faculty of Health, School of Kinesiology & Health Science
• Professor Gail Mitchell, Faculty of Health, School of Nursing
• Professor Jennine Rawana, Faculty of Health, Department of Psychology
• Professor Rose Steele, Faculty of Health, School of Nursing
• LaMarsh Centre for Research on Violence聽& Conflict Resolution
• 91亚色 Institute for Health Research

Fine and performing arts research 鈥� Nov. 24

Confirmed participants include:

Want to participate?

Do you have completed works, prototypes, technology, or works in progress that you could demonstrate? Do you have graduate/undergraduate students working with you who could assist and help talk about the work? If you have other ideas, we would love to hear about them.

Interested faculty members or research centres should contact Elizabeth Monier-Williams in the Office of the Vice-President Research & Innovation at ext. 21069 or eamw@yorku.ca. Please note that space is limited and allocated on a first-come, first-serve basis.

Other research-related events

These research-related events will also be running in November:

• Nov. 6 鈥� , featuring Professor Poonam Puri聽from聽Osgoode Hall Law School and Professor Steven Gaetz聽from the Faculty of Education among other speakers.
• Nov. 10 鈥� Toward a Behavioral Neuroscience of Parenting, sponsored by the Department of Psychology in the Faculty of Health.
• Nov. 24 & 25 鈥� at the Metro Toronto Convention Centre (by invitation only).
• Nov. 26 鈥� Campus visit from Suzanne Fortier, president of the .
• Nov. 30 鈥� Campus visit from David Malone, president of .

By Elizabeth Monier-Williams, research communications officer

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鈥淗e鈥檚 a big-time Canadian space scientist,鈥� said Howard Trottier, a professor of physics at SFU. Whiteway is best known for spotting snow on Mars. He was the principle investigator for the Canadian weather station on the Phoenix Mars Lander, wrote Now.

Whiteway is the director of the .

Republished courtesy of YFile鈥� 91亚色鈥檚 daily e-bulletin.

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Although technically he would need only one person to achieve his goal, Balaskas has set his sights on 500 鈥� a round number he developed based on the total number of individuals who have flown in space since the start of manned space flights 50 years ago, plus a few more for good measure.

Right: Janusz Kozinski, dean of 91亚色鈥檚 Faculty of Science & Engineering, takes a 鈥榳alk鈥� on a piece of the red planet

A laboratory technologist in the Faculty of Science & Engineering鈥檚 and a 91亚色 physics grad who studies meteorites, Balaskas (BSc 鈥�79) hit upon the idea when he became interested in a meteorite known as (photo, left 漏 Royal Ontario Museum). This orthopyroxene-bearing nakhlite from Mars was found in the Sahara Desert and purchased by meteorite dealers in 2002. The dealers, Adam and Greg Hupe, have shared fragments of the meteorite for research while the main portion is now part of the Royal Ontario Museum鈥檚 collection.

Balaskas purchased a couple of tiny fragments from the Hupes and invited 91亚色 students and friends of 91亚色, including a who鈥檚 who of distinguished Canadians, to become the first to 鈥渨alk on Mars鈥� for his world record attempt. Each person who joins Balaskas鈥� select group treads a careful step (barefoot or socks, their option), receives a certificate of achievement and will be listed among those who helped establish the record, which Balaskas eventually plans to submit to the publisher of the Guinness Book of World Records for official recognition.

91亚色 President & Vice-Chancellor Mamdouh Shoukri became the latest person to walk on Mars when Balaskas visited his office in the 91亚色 Research Tower. Janusz Kozinski, dean of 91亚色鈥檚 Faculty of Science & Engineering, joined Shoukri in his Mars trek and said the record attempt was a good way of drawing attention to 91亚色鈥檚 space programs. Balaskas said his goal in starting the project was to raise awareness of 91亚色鈥檚 ever-increasing reputation as one of the leading space science universities in Canada where 91亚色 students and members of the 91亚色 community play a big part.

Left: From left, President Shoukri with Balaskas and Dean Kozinski

91亚色 researchers achieved world recognition in 2008 when, as part of the Phoenix Mars Mission team led by Professor Jim Whiteway, they helped determine that, like the Earth, it even snows on Mars (see YFile, Oct. 1, 2008).聽 A new team of researchers from 91亚色鈥檚 Department of Earth & Space Science & Engineering led by Professor Jack McConnell will take part in the , a partnership between the , the (CSA) and .

Whiteway is the director of the ; McConnell is also a member, as are many faculty involved in space research at 91亚色.

91亚色 grad Steve MacLean (BSc 鈥�73, PhD 鈥�83, Hon. DSc 鈥�93), a former Canadian astronaut who was appointed president of the Canadian Space Agency in 2008, is a member of a smaller and exclusive group of 91亚色 space scientists who have walked on a different world and have certificates to prove it. Balaskas said he told Canadian astronaut Julie Payette, an honorary degree recipient at this year鈥檚 91亚色 Spring convocation, that her colleague McLean had done something she hadn鈥檛 done 鈥� walked on the moon! McLean was presented with a certificate and a fragment of NWA 482, a meteorite that originated from the Lunar Highlands that is geologically identical to the Genesis Rock brought back from the Moon by the Apollo 15 astronauts.

Left: A fragment of NWA 998, a meteor from Mars

But his project is more than just a promotional gimmick, says Balaskas, who during the day oversees the Faculty鈥檚 undergraduate physics labs. He and Sal Boccia, an engineering technologist in the metallurgy lab at the University of Toronto, have examined samples of NWA 998 under an electron microscope and found things they feel are worth further study, which they plan to pursue.

Republished courtesy of YFile鈥� 91亚色鈥檚 daily e-bulletin.

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